CS372H Spring 2012 Lab 3: User Environments

Handed out Friday, January 27, 2012
Part A due Friday, February 10, 2012, 9:00 PM
Part B due Friday, February 17, 2012, 9:00 PM

Preface about Pair Programming

Administrative Note: Remember, as per the class policies on the lab page, you must pair program from this point and onward.

Introduction

In this lab you will implement the basic kernel facilities required to get a protected user-mode environment (i.e., "process") running. You will enhance the JOS kernel to set up the data structures to keep track of user environments, create a single user environment, load a program image into it, and start it running. You will also make the JOS kernel capable of handling any system calls the user environment makes and handling any other exceptions it causes.

Note: In this lab, the terms environment and process are interchangeable - they have roughly the same meaning. We introduce the term "environment" instead of the traditional term "process" in order to stress the point that JOS environments do not provide the same semantics as UNIX processes, even though they are roughly comparable.

Getting Started

Use Git to commit your Lab 2 source, fetch the latest version of the course repository, and then create a local branch called lab3 based on our lab3 branch, origin/lab3:

In addition, a number of the source files we handed out for lab2 are modified in lab3. To see the differences, you can type:

You may also want to take another look at the lab tools guide, as it includes information on debugging user code that becomes relevant in this lab.

Lab Requirements

This lab is divided into two parts, A and B. You should make turnin-partA your lab before the Part A deadline, at which point your code must pass all of the part A tests. By the Part B deadline, your code must pas all of the part B tests (use make turnin-partB).

As in lab 2, you will need to do all of the regular exercises described in the lab and at least one challenge problem (for the entire lab, not for each part). (Some challenge problems are more challenging than others, of course!) Additionally, write up brief answers to the questions posed in the lab and a short (e.g., one or two paragraph) description of what you did to solve your chosen challenge problem. If you implement more than one challenge problem, you only need to describe one of them in the write-up, though of course you are welcome to describe more. Furthermore, challenge problems are due at the same time as the last part of a lab, so you do not need to have one completed and written up until you are completely done with the lab. Place the write-up in a file called answers.txt (plain text) in the top level of your lab directory before handing in your work.

Please include a header that contains your name, UTCS username, and lab number and make sure the file is named correctly. If you do not, your answer may not be graded. Please include in your answers.txt the write-up for all of the parts of the lab that you have completed so far (so the lab3b write-up should include the lab3a write-up), but do not include the write-up of previous labs. We may print these out, and we would rather not waste paper.

Hand-In Procedure

When you are ready to hand in your lab code and write-up, run make turnin-parti where i is the part you want to turnin in the lab directory. This will first do a make clean to clean out any .o files and executables, and then create a tar file called lab3i-handin.tar.gz with the entire contents of your lab directory and submit it via the CS turnin utility. If you submit multiple times, we will take the latest submission and count lateness accordingly.

As before, we will be grading your solutions with a grading program. You can run make grade in the lab directory to test your kernel with the grading program. You may change any of the kernel source and header files you need to in order to complete the lab, but needless to say you must not change or otherwise subvert the grading code.

Inline Assembly

In this lab you may find GCC's inline assembly language feature useful, although it is also possible to complete the lab without using it. At the very least, you will need to be able to understand the fragments of inline assembly language ("asm" statements) that already exist in the source code we gave you. You can find several sources of information on GCC inline assembly language on the class reference materials page.

Part A: User Environments and Exception Handling

The new include file inc/env.h contains basic definitions for user environments in JOS. Read it now. The kernel uses the Env data structure to keep track of each user environment. In this lab you will initially create just one environment, but you will need to design the JOS kernel to support multiple environments; lab 4 will take advantage of this feature by allowing a user environment to fork other environments.

As you can see in kern/env.c, the kernel maintains three main global variables pertaining to environments:

Once JOS gets up and running, the envs pointer points to an array of Env structures representing all the environments in the system. In our design, the JOS kernel will support a maximum of NENV simultaneously active environments, although there will typically be far fewer running environments at any given time. (NENV is a constant #define'd in inc/env.h.) Once it is allocated, the envs array will contain a single instance of the Env data structure for each of the NENV possible environments.

The JOS kernel keeps all of the inactive Env structures on the env_free_list. This design allows easy allocation and deallocation of environments, as they merely have to be added to or removed from the free list.

The kernel uses the curenv variable to keep track of the currently executing environment at any given time. During boot up, before the first environment is run, curenv is initially set to NULL.

Environment State

The Env structure is defined in inc/env.h as follows (although more fields will be added in future labs):

Like a Unix process, a JOS environment couples the concepts of "thread" and "address space". The thread is defined primarily by the saved registers (the env_tf field), and the address space is defined by the page directory and page tables pointed to by env_pgdir. To run an environment, the kernel must set up the CPU with both the saved registers and the appropriate address space.

Allocating the Environments Array

In lab 2, you allocated memory in mem_init() for the pages[] array, which is a table the kernel uses to keep track of which pages are free and which are not. You will now need to modify mem_init() further to allocate a similar array of Env structures, called envs.

Exercise 1. Modify mem_init() in kern/pmap.c to allocate and map the envs array. This array consists of exactly NENV instances of the Env structure allocated much like how you allocated the pages array. Also like the pages array, the memory backing envs should also be mapped user read-only at UENVS (defined in inc/memlayout.h) so user processes can read from this array.

You should run your code and make sure check_kern_pgdir() succeeds.

Creating and Running Environments

You will now write the code in kern/env.c necessary to run a user environment. Because we do not yet have a filesystem, we will set up the kernel to load a static binary image that is embedded within the kernel itself. JOS embeds this binary in the kernel as a ELF executable image.

The Lab 3 GNUmakefile generates a number of binary images in the obj/user/ directory. If you look at kern/Makefrag, you will notice some magic that "links" these binaries directly into the kernel executable as if they were .o files. The -b binary option on the linker command line causes these files to be linked in as "raw" uninterpreted binary files rather than as regular .o files produced by the compiler. (As far as the linker is concerned, these files do not have to be ELF images at all - they could be anything, such as text files or pictures!) If you look at obj/kern/kernel.sym after building the kernel, you will notice that the linker has "magically" produced a number of funny symbols with obscure names like _binary_obj_user_hello_start, _binary_obj_user_hello_end, and _binary_obj_user_hello_size. The linker generates these symbol names by mangling the file names of the binary files; the symbols provide the regular kernel code with a way to reference the embedded binary files.

In i386_init() in kern/init.c you'll see code to run one of these binary images in an environment. However, the critical functions to set up user environments are not complete; you will need to fill them in.

Exercise 2. In the file env.c, finish coding the following functions:

env_init(): Initialize all of the Env structures in the envs array and add them to the env_free_list. Also calls env_init_percpu, which configures the segmentation hardware with separate segments for privilege level 0 (kernel) and privilege level 3 (user).
env_setup_vm(): Allocate a page directory for a new environment and initialize the kernel portion of the new environment's address space.
region_alloc(): Allocates and maps physical memory for an environment
load_icode(): You will need to parse an ELF binary image, much like the boot loader already does, and load its contents into the user address space of a new environment.
env_create(): Allocate an environment with env_alloc and call load_icode to load an ELF binary into it.
env_run(): Start a given environment running in user mode.

As you write these functions, you might find the new cprintf verb %e useful -- it prints a description corresponding to an error code. For example,

	r = -E_NO_MEM;
	panic("env_alloc: %e", r);

will panic with the message "env_alloc: out of memory".

Below is a call graph of the code up to the point where the user code is invoked. Make sure you understand the purpose of each step.

Once you are done you should compile your kernel and run it under QEMU. If all goes well, your system should enter user space and execute the hello binary until it makes a system call with the int instruction. At that point there will be trouble, since JOS has not set up the hardware to allow any kind of transition from user space into the kernel. When the CPU discovers that it is not set up to handle this system call interrupt, it will generate a general protection exception, find that it can't handle that, generate a double fault exception, find that it can't handle that either, and finally give up with what's known as a "triple fault". Usually, you would then see the CPU reset and the system reboot. While this is important for legacy applications (see this blog post for an explanation of why), it's a pain for kernel development, so with the CS372H patched QEMU you'll instead see a register dump and a "Triple fault." message.

We'll address this problem shortly, but for now we can use the debugger to check that we're entering user mode. Use make qemu-gdb and set a GDB breakpoint at env_pop_tf, which should be the last function you hit before actually entering user mode. Single step through this function using si; the processor should enter user mode after the iret instruction. You should then see the first instruction in the user environment's executable, which is the cmpl instruction at the label start in lib/entry.S. Now use b *0x... to set a breakpoint at the int $0x30 in sys_cputs() in hello (see obj/user/hello.asm for the user-space address). This int is the system call to display a character to the console. If you cannot execute as far as the int, then something is wrong with your address space setup or program loading code; go back and fix it before continuing.

Handling Interrupts and Exceptions

At this point, the first int $0x30 system call instruction in user space is a dead end: once the processor gets into user mode, there is no way to get back out. You will now need to implement basic exception and system call handling, so that it is possible for the kernel to recover control of the processor from user-mode code. The first thing you should do is thoroughly familiarize yourself with the x86 interrupt and exception mechanism.

In this lab we generally follow Intel's terminology for interrupts, exceptions, and the like. However, terms such as exception, trap, interrupt, fault and abort have no standard meaning across architectures or operating systems, and are often used without regard to the subtle distinctions between them on a particular architecture such as the x86. When you see these terms outside of this lab, the meanings might be slightly different.

Basics of Protected Control Transfer

Exceptions and interrupts are both "protected control transfers," which cause the processor to switch from user to kernel mode (CPL=0) without giving the user-mode code any opportunity to interfere with the functioning of the kernel or other environments. In Intel's terminology, an interrupt is a protected control transfer that is caused by an asynchronous event usually external to the processor, such as notification of external device I/O activity. An exception, in contrast, is a protected control transfer caused synchronously by the currently running code, for example due to a divide by zero or an invalid memory access.

In order to ensure that these protected control transfers are actually protected, the processor's interrupt/exception mechanism is designed so that the code currently running when the interrupt or exception occurs does not get to choose arbitrarily where the kernel is entered or how. Instead, the processor ensures that the kernel can be entered only under carefully controlled conditions. On the x86, two mechanisms work together to provide this protection:

Types of Exceptions and Interrupts

All of the synchronous exceptions that the x86 processor can generate internally use interrupt vectors between 0 and 31, and therefore map to IDT entries 0-31. For example, a page fault always causes an exception through vector 14. Interrupt vectors greater than 31 are only used by software interrupts, which can be generated by the int instruction, or asynchronous hardware interrupts, caused by external devices when they need attention.

In this section we will extend JOS to handle the internally generated x86 exceptions in vectors 0-31. In the next section we will make JOS handle software interrupt vector 48 (0x30), which JOS (fairly arbitrarily) uses as its system call interrupt vector. In Lab 4 we will extend JOS to handle externally generated hardware interrupts such as the clock interrupt.

An Example

Let's put these pieces together and trace through an example. Let's say the processor is executing code in a user environment and encounters a divide instruction that attempts to divide by zero.

For certain types of x86 exceptions, in addition to the "standard" five words above, the processor pushes onto the stack another word containing an error code. The page fault exception, number 14, is an important example. See the 80386 manual to determine for which exception numbers the processor pushes an error code, and what the error code means in that case. When the processor pushes an error code, the stack would look as follows at the beginning of the exception handler when coming in from user mode:

Nested Exceptions and Interrupts

The processor can take exceptions and interrupts both from kernel and user mode. It is only when entering the kernel from user mode, however, that the x86 processor automatically switches stacks before pushing its old register state onto the stack and invoking the appropriate exception handler through the IDT. If the processor is already in kernel mode when the interrupt or exception occurs (the low 2 bits of the CS register are already zero), then the CPU just pushes more values on the same kernel stack. In this way, the kernel can gracefully handle nested exceptions caused by code within the kernel itself. This capability is an important tool in implementing protection, as we will see later in the section on system calls.

If the processor is already in kernel mode and takes a nested exception, since it does not need to switch stacks, it does not save the old SS or ESP registers. For exception types that do not push an error code, the kernel stack therefore looks like the following on entry to the exception handler:

For exception types that push an error code, the processor pushes the error code immediately after the old EIP, as before.

There is one important caveat to the processor's nested exception capability. If the processor takes an exception while already in kernel mode, and cannot push its old state onto the kernel stack for any reason such as lack of stack space, then there is nothing the processor can do to recover, so it simply resets itself. Needless to say, the kernel should be designed so that this can't happen.

Setting Up the IDT

You should now have the basic information you need in order to set up the IDT and handle exceptions in JOS. For now, you will set up the IDT to handle interrupt vectors 0-31 (the processor exceptions). We'll handle system call interrupts later in this lab and add interrupts 32-47 (the device IRQs) in a later lab.

The header files inc/trap.h and kern/trap.h contain important definitions related to interrupts and exceptions that you will need to become familiar with. The file kern/trap.h contains definitions that are strictly private to the kernel, while inc/trap.h contains definitions that may also be useful to user-level programs and libraries.

Note: Some of the exceptions in the range 0-31 are defined by Intel to be reserved. Since they will never be generated by the processor, it doesn't really matter how you handle them. Do whatever you think is cleanest.

Each exception or interrupt should have its own handler in trapentry.S and trap_init() should initialize the IDT with the addresses of these handlers. Each of the handlers should build a struct Trapframe (see inc/trap.h) on the stack and call trap() (in trap.c) with a pointer to the Trapframe. trap() then handles the exception/interrupt or dispatches to a specific handler function.

Exercise 4. Edit trapentry.S and trap.c and implement the features described above. The macros TRAPHANDLER and TRAPHANDLER_NOEC in trapentry.S should help you, as well as the T_* defines in inc/trap.h. You will need to add an entry point in trapentry.S (using those macros) for each trap defined in inc/trap.h, and you'll have to provide _alltraps which the TRAPHANDLER macros refer to. You will also need to modify trap_init() to initialize the idt to point to each of these entry points defined in trapentry.S; the SETGATE macro will be helpful here.

Your _alltraps should:

push values to make the stack look like a struct Trapframe
load GD_KD into %ds and %es
pushl %esp to pass a pointer to the Trapframe as an argument to trap()
call trap (can trap ever return?)

Consider using the pushal instruction; it fits nicely with the layout of the struct Trapframe.

Test your trap handling code using some of the test programs in the user directory that cause exceptions before making any system calls, such as user/divzero. You should be able to get make grade to succeed on the divzero, softint, and badsegment tests at this point.

Challenge! You probably have a lot of very similar code right now, between the lists of TRAPHANDLER in trapentry.S and their installations in trap.c. Clean this up. Change the macros in trapentry.S to automatically generate a table for trap.c to use. Note that you can switch between laying down code and data in the assembler by using the directives .text and .data.

Questions

Answer the following questions in your answers.txt:

What is the purpose of having an individual handler function for each exception/interrupt? (i.e., if all exceptions/interrupts were delivered to the same handler, what feature that exists in the current implementation could not be provided?)
Did you have to do anything to make the user/softint program behave correctly? The grade script expects it to produce a general protection fault (trap 13), but softint's code says int $14. Why should this produce interrupt vector 13? What happens if the kernel actually allows softint's int $14 instruction to invoke the kernel's page fault handler (which is interrupt vector 14)?

This concludes part A of the lab. Don't forget to run make turnin-partA before the part A deadline. (If you've already completed part B by that time, you only need to submit once.)

Part B: Page Faults, Breakpoints Exceptions, and System Calls

Now that your kernel has basic exception handling capabilities, you will refine it to provide important operating system primitives that depend on exception handling.

Handling Page Faults

The page fault exception, interrupt vector 14 (T_PGFLT), is a particularly important one that we will exercise heavily throughout this lab and the next. When the processor takes a page fault, it stores the linear (i.e., virtual) address that caused the fault in a special processor control register, CR2. In trap.c we have provided the beginnings of a special function, page_fault_handler(), to handle page fault exceptions.

You will further refine the kernel's page fault handling below, as you implement system calls.

The Breakpoint Exception

The breakpoint exception, interrupt vector 3 (T_BRKPT), is normally used to allow debuggers to insert breakpoints in a program's code by temporarily replacing the relevant program instruction with the special 1-byte int3 software interrupt instruction. In JOS we will abuse this exception slightly by turning it into a primitive pseudo-system call that any user environment can use to invoke the JOS kernel monitor. This usage is actually somewhat appropriate if we think of the JOS kernel monitor as a primitive debugger. The user-mode implementation of panic() in lib/panic.c, for example, performs an int3 after displaying its panic message.

Challenge! Modify the JOS kernel monitor so that you can 'continue' execution from the current location (e.g., after the int3, if the kernel monitor was invoked via the breakpoint exception), and so that you can single-step one instruction at a time. You will need to understand certain bits of the EFLAGS register in order to implement single-stepping.

Optional: If you're feeling really adventurous, find some x86 disassembler source code - e.g., by ripping it out of QEMU, or out of GNU binutils, or just write it yourself - and extend the JOS kernel monitor to be able to disassemble and display instructions as you are stepping through them. Combined with the symbol table loading from lab 2, this is the stuff of which real kernel debuggers are made.

System calls

User processes ask the kernel to do things for them by invoking system calls. When the user process invokes a system call, the processor enters kernel mode, the processor and the kernel cooperate to save the user process's state, the kernel executes appropriate code in order to carry out the system call, and then resumes the user process. The exact details of how the user process gets the kernel's attention and how it specifies which call it wants to execute vary from system to system.

In the JOS kernel, we will use the int instruction, which causes a processor interrupt. In particular, we will use int $0x30 as the system call interrupt. We have defined the constant T_SYSCALL to 48 (0x30) for you. You will have to set up the interrupt descriptor to allow user processes to cause that interrupt. Note that interrupt 0x30 cannot be generated by hardware, so there is no ambiguity caused by allowing user code to generate it.

The application will pass the system call number and the system call arguments in registers. This way, the kernel won't need to grub around in the user environment's stack or instruction stream. The system call number will go in %eax, and the arguments (up to five of them) will go in %edx, %ecx, %ebx, %edi, and %esi, respectively. The kernel passes the return value back in %eax. The assembly code to invoke a system call has been written for you, in syscall() in lib/syscall.c. You should read through it and make sure you understand what is going on.

Exercise 7. Add a handler in the kernel for interrupt vector T_SYSCALL. You will have to edit kern/trapentry.S and kern/trap.c's trap_init(). You also need to change trap_dispatch() to handle the system call interrupt by calling syscall() (defined in kern/syscall.c) with the appropriate arguments, and then arranging for the return value to be passed back to the user process in %eax. Finally, you need to implement syscall() in kern/syscall.c. Make sure syscall() returns -E_INVAL if the system call number is invalid. You should read and understand lib/syscall.c (especially the inline assembly routine) in order to confirm your understanding of the system call interface. You may also find it helpful to read inc/syscall.h.

Run the user/hello program under your kernel (make run-hello or make run-hello-nox). It should print "hello, world" on the console and then cause a page fault in user mode. If this does not happen, it probably means your system call handler isn't quite right. You should also now be able to get make grade to succeed on the testbss test.

Challenge! Implement system calls using the sysenter and sysexit instructions instead of using int 0x30 and iret.

The sysenter/sysexit instructions were designed by Intel to be faster than int/iret. They do this by using registers instead of the stack and by making assumptions about how the segmentation registers are used. The exact details of these instructions can be found in Volume 2B of the Intel reference manuals.

The easiest way to add support for these instructions in JOS is to add a sysenter_handler in kern/trapentry.S that saves enough information about the user environment to return to it, sets up the kernel environment, pushes the arguments to syscall() and calls syscall() directly. Once syscall() returns, set everything up for and execute the sysexit instruction. You will also need to add code to kern/init.c to set up the necessary model specific registers (MSRs). Section 6.1.2 in Volume 2 of the AMD Architecture Programmer's Manual and the reference on SYSENTER in Volume 2B of the Intel reference manuals give good descriptions of the relevant MSRs. You can find an implementation of wrmsr to add to inc/x86.h for writing to these MSRs here.

Finally, lib/syscall.c must be changed to support making a system call with sysenter. Here is a possible register layout for the sysenter instruction:

	eax                - syscall number
	edx, ecx, ebx, edi - arg1, arg2, arg3, arg4
	esi                - return pc
	ebp                - return esp
	esp                - trashed by sysenter

GCC's inline assembler will automatically save registers that you tell it to load values directly into. Don't forget to either save (push) and restore (pop) other registers that you clobber, or tell the inline assembler that you're clobbering them. The inline assembler doesn't support saving %ebp, so you will need to add code to save and restore it yourself. The return address can be put into %esi by using an instruction like leal after_sysenter_label, %%esi.

Note that this only supports 4 arguments, so you will need to leave the old method of doing system calls around to support 5 argument system calls. Furthermore, because this fast path doesn't update the current environment's trap frame, it won't be suitable for some of the system calls we add in later labs.

You may have to revisit your code once we enable asynchronous interrupts in the next lab. Specifically, you'll need to enable interrupts when returning to the user process, which sysexit doesn't do for you.

User-mode startup

A user program starts running at the top of lib/entry.S. After some setup, this code calls libmain(), in lib/libmain.c. You should modify libmain() to initialize the global pointer thisenv to point at this environment's struct Env in the envs[] array. (Note that lib/entry.S has already defined envs to point at the UENVS mapping you set up in Part A.) Hint: look in inc/env.h and use sys_getenvid.

libmain() then calls umain, which, in the case of the hello program, is in user/hello.c. Note that after printing "hello, world", it tries to access thisenv->env_id. This is why it faulted earlier. Now that you've initialized thisenv properly, it should not fault. If it still faults, you probably haven't mapped the UENVS area user-readable (back in Part A in pmap.c; this is the first time we've actually used the UENVS area).

Page faults and memory protection

Memory protection is a crucial feature of an operating system, ensuring that bugs in one program cannot corrupt other programs or corrupt the operating system itself.

Operating systems usually rely on hardware support to implement memory protection. The OS keeps the hardware informed about which virtual addresses are valid and which are not. When a program tries to access an invalid address or one for which it has no permissions, the processor stops the program at the instruction causing the fault and then traps into the kernel with information about the attempted operation. If the fault is fixable, the kernel can fix it and let the program continue running. If the fault is not fixable, then the program cannot continue, since it will never get past the instruction causing the fault.

As an example of a fixable fault, consider an automatically extended stack. In many systems the kernel initially allocates a single stack page, and then if a program faults accessing pages further down the stack, the kernel will allocate those pages automatically and let the program continue. By doing this, the kernel only allocates as much stack memory as the program needs, but the program can work under the illusion that it has an arbitrarily large stack.

System calls present an interesting problem for memory protection. Most system call interfaces let user programs pass pointers to the kernel. These pointers point at user buffers to be read or written. The kernel then dereferences these pointers while carrying out the system call. There are two problems with this:

For both of these reasons the kernel must be extremely careful when handling pointers presented by user programs.

You will now solve these two problems with a single mechanism that scrutinizes all pointers passed from userspace into the kernel. When a program passes the kernel a pointer, the kernel will check that the address is in the user part of the address space, and that the page table would allow the memory operation.

Thus, the kernel will never suffer a page fault due to dereferencing a user-supplied pointer. If the kernel does page fault, it should panic and terminate.

Exercise 9. Change kern/trap.c to panic if a page fault happens in kernel mode.

Hint: to determine whether a fault happened in user mode or in kernel mode, check the low bits of the tf_cs.

Read user_mem_assert in kern/pmap.c and implement user_mem_check in that same file.

Change kern/syscall.c to sanity check arguments to system calls.

Boot your kernel, running user/buggyhello. The environment should be destroyed, and the kernel should not panic. You should see:

	[00001000] user_mem_check assertion failure for va 00000001
	[00001000] free env 00001000
	Destroyed the only environment - nothing more to do!

Finally, change debuginfo_eip in kern/kdebug.c to call user_mem_check on usd, stabs, and stabstr. If you now run user/breakpoint, you should be able to run backtrace from the kernel monitor and see the backtrace traverse into lib/libmain.c before the kernel panics with a page fault. What causes this page fault? You don't need to fix it, but you should understand why it happens.

Note that the same mechanism you just implemented also works for malicious user applications (such as user/evilhello).

This completes the lab. Make sure you pass all of the make grade tests and don't forget to write up your answers to the questions and a description of your challenge exercise solution in answers.txt. Type make turnin-partB in the lab directory, and follow the directions for uploading your lab tar file to our server.

`inc/`	`env.h`	Public definitions for user-mode environments
	`trap.h`	Public definitions for trap handling
	`syscall.h`	Public definitions for system calls from user environments to the kernel
	`lib.h`	Public definitions for the user-mode support library
`kern/`	`env.h`	Kernel-private definitions for user-mode environments
	`env.c`	Kernel code implementing user-mode environments
	`trap.h`	Kernel-private trap handling definitions
	`trap.c`	Trap handling code
	`trapentry.S`	Assembly-language trap handler entry-points
	`syscall.h`	Kernel-private definitions for system call handling
	`syscall.c`	System call implementation code
`lib/`	`Makefrag`	Makefile fragment to build user-mode library, `obj/lib/libuser.a`
	`entry.S`	Assembly-language entry-point for user environments
	`libmain.c`	User-mode library setup code called from `entry.S`
	`syscall.c`	User-mode system call stub functions
	`console.c`	User-mode implementations of `putchar` and `getchar`, providing console I/O
	`exit.c`	User-mode implementation of `exit`
	`panic.c`	User-mode implementation of `panic`
`user/`	`*`	Various test programs to check kernel lab 3 code