Operating Systems

NOTE: Lectures #21 and #22 were given by professor chee yap and covered section 4.8, segmentation. Professor Yap kindly supplied lecture notes that are available here.

4.8: Segmentation

Up to now, the virtual address space has been contiguous.

• Among other issues this makes memory management difficult when there are more that two dynamically growing regions.
• With two regions you start them on opposite sides of the virtual space as we did before.
• Better is to have many virtual address spaces each starting at zero.
• This split up is user visible.
• Without segmentation (equivalently said with just one segment) all procedures are packed together so if one changes in size all the virtual addresses following are changed and the program must be re-linked. With each procedure in a separate segment this relinking would be limited to the symbols defined or used in the modified procedure.
• Eases flexible protection and sharing (share a segment). For example, can have a shared library.

Homework: 37.

** Two Segments

Late PDP-10s and TOPS-10

• One shared text segment, that can also contain shared (normally read only) data.
• One (private) writable data segment.
• Permission bits on each segment.
• Which kind of segment is better to evict?
  • Swapping out the shared segment hurts many tasks.
  • The shared segment is read only (probably) so no writeback is needed.
• “One segment” is OS/MVT done above.

** Three Segments

Traditional (early) Unix shown at right.

• Shared text marked execute only.
• Data segment (global and static variables).
• Stack segment (automatic variables).
• In reality, since the text doesn't grow, this was sometimes treated as 2 segments by combining text and data into one segment

** Four Segments

Just kidding.

** General (not necessarily demand) Segmentation

• Permits fine grained sharing and protection. For a simple example can share the text segment in early unix.
• Visible division of program.
• Variable size segments.
• Virtual Address = (seg#, offset).
• Does not mandate how stored in memory.
  • One possibility is that the entire program must be in memory in order to run it. Use whole process swapping. Early versions of Unix did this.
  • Can also implement demand segmentation.
  • Can combine with demand paging (done below).
• Requires a segment table with a base and limit value for each segment. Similar to a page table. Why is there no limit value in a page table?
  Ans: All pages are the same size so the limit is obvious.
• Entries are called STEs, Segment Table Entries.
• (seg#, offset) --> if (offset<limit) base+offset else error.
• Segmentation exhibits external fragmentation, just as whole program swapping. Since segments are smaller than programs (several segments make up one program), the external fragmentation is not as bad.

** Demand Segmentation

Same idea as demand paging, but applied to segments.

• If a segment is loaded, base and limit are stored in the STE and the valid bit is set in the STE.
• The STE is accessed for each memory reference (not really, TLB).
• If the segment is not loaded, the valid bit is unset. The base and limit as well as the disk address of the segment is stored in the an OS table.
• A reference to a non-loaded segment generate a segment fault (analogous to page fault).
• To load a segment, we must solve both the placement question and the replacement question (for demand paging, there is no placement question).
• I believe demand segmentation was once implemented by Burroughs, but am not sure. It is not used in modern systems.

The following table mostly from Tanenbaum compares demand paging with demand segmentation.

Consideration	Demand Paging	Demand Segmentation
Programmer aware	No	Yes
How many addr spaces	1	Many
VA size > PA size	Yes	Yes
Protect individual procedures separately	No	Yes
Accommodate elements with changing sizes	No	Yes
Ease user sharing	No	Yes
Why invented	let the VA size exceed the PA size	Sharing, Protection, independent addr spaces
Internal fragmentation	Yes	No, in principle
External fragmentation	No	Yes
Placement question	No	Yes
Replacement question	Yes	Yes

** 4.8.2 and 4.8.3: Segmentation With (demand) Paging

(Tanenbaum gives two sections to explain the differences between Multics and the Intel Pentium. These notes cover what is common to all segmentation+paging systems).

Combines both segmentation and demand paging to get advantages of both at a cost in complexity. This is very common now.

Although it is possible to combine segmentation with non-demand paging, I do not know of any system that did this.

• A virtual address becomes a triple: (seg#, page#, offset).
  
  
• Each segment table entry (STE) points to the page table for that segment. Compare this with a multilevel page table.
  
  
• The physical size of each segment is a multiple of the page size (since the segment consists of pages). The logical size is not; instead we keep the exact size in the STE (limit value) and terminate the process if it referenced beyond the limit. In this case the last page of each segment is partially valid (internal fragmentation).
  
  
• The page# field in the address gives the entry in the chosen page table and the offset gives the offset in the page.
  
  
• From the limit field, one can easily compute the size of the segment in pages (which equals the size of the corresponding page table in PTEs).
  
  
• A straightforward implementation of segmentation with paging would requires 3 memory references (STE, PTE, referenced word) so a TLB is crucial.
  
  
• Some books carelessly say that segments are of fixed size. This is wrong. They are of variable size with a fixed maximum and with the requirement that the physical size of a segment is a multiple of the page size.
  
  
• The first example of segmentation with paging was Multics.
  
  
• Keep protection and sharing information on segments. This works well for a number of reasons.
  1. A segment is variable size.
  2. Segments and their boundaries are user (i.e., linker) visible.
  3. Segments are shared by sharing their page tables. This eliminates the problem mentioned above with shared pages.
  
  
• Since we have paging, there is no placement question and no external fragmentation.
  
  
• Do fetch-on-demand with pages (i.e., do demand paging).
  
  
• In general, segmentation with demand paging works well and is widely used. The only problems are the complexity and the resulting 3 memory references for each user memory reference. The complexity is real, but can be managed. The three memory references would be fatal were it not for TLBs, which considerably ameliorate the problem. TLBs have high hit rates and for a TLB hit there is essentially no penalty.

Homework: 38.

Homework: Consider a 32-bit address machine using paging with 8KB pages and 4 byte PTEs. How many bits are used for the offset and what is the size of the largest page table? Repeat the question for 128KB pages. So far this question has been asked before. Repeat both parts assuming the system also has segmentation with at most 128 segments.